The United States has the Founding Fathers.  Canada has the Fathers of Confederation.  Unlike the Founding Fathers, whose new nation gained independence thanks to war, the Fathers of Confederation took a quieter, more methodical approach.

Fathers of Confederation refers to 36 men who represented their colonies at one or more conferences that were held to decide the future of British North America. The Charlottetown Conference was held September 1864 to discuss the possible unification of the Maritime colonies, but representatives from the Province of Canada (modern day Ontario and Quebec) also were invited and soon discussion turned to unification of all the colonies (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada). Delegates discussed how the new government would operate, including a bicameral system with a Senate and House of Commons. The Quebec Conference was held in October 1864 to discuss in greater detail the proposals made at the last conference.  The London Conference was held from December 1866 to March 1867 in Great Britain to draft the British North America Act establishing the Dominion of Canada.

Representatives from Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland also attended the conferences, but opted not to enter confederation.

While discussions of unification were not new, in the 1860s, the intent was to protect the Canadian colonies from potential American aggression as well as economic and population expansion.

The British North America Act easily passed the British Parliament.  After Queen Victoria signed the legislation into law, a royal proclamation was issued:

“We do ordain, declare, and command that on and after the First day of July, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Sixty-seven, the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, shall form and be One Dominion, under the name of Canada.”

July 1 was originally commemorated as Dominion Day.  Today it is known as Canada Day.

When a new province was added, it was said to be entering into Confederation.  The first addition came in 1870 when Manitoba joined the dominion.

By 1914, all the provinces and territories we recognize today as Canada existed with the exception of Newfoundland, which was an independent Dominion until after World War II, and Nanuvut which was formed out of the Northwest Territories in the late 20th century.

Canadian-American Relations in the 1910s

Early 20th century Canada was a nation stuck between two powers. It was tied culturally and politically to Great Britain. As a dominion of the British Empire, Canada had the power to decide domestic issues, but when it came to international affairs, Britain still ruled on its behalf.

There were many who believed Canada deserved the right to speak for itself on foreign issues. This attitude grew during World War I. Prime Minister Robert Borden used the nation’s considerable contribution to the war effort as leverage.  He asked for and received recognition for Canada in numerous areas including the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

As Canada experienced newfound national freedom, it wanted to avoid falling too much under the influence from the United States. Canadians wanted their own identity even if they weren’t yet certain what being Canadian meant. All they knew was their soldiers’ war accomplishments had given Canada a source of national pride.

Talk of annexation to the United States began during the American Revolution as part of the belief that the American flag should fly over all the lands of North America from the Rio Grande to the North Pole. The U.S. House of Representatives proposed a bill in 1866 that would have annexed Canada, but the legislation never came up for a vote.

A group of Irish-American Civil War veterans invaded Canada multiple times between 1866 and the early 1870s in what is known as the Fenian Raids. The Fenian incursions were unsuccessful, but it did renew Canadians’ fear that they would be forced to become part of the United States.

Officially, talk of annexation ended when the U.S. government recognized the Dominion of Canada, but the idea persisted into the 20th century as economic annexation.

Political parties used the fear of annexation in their rhetoric as late as the 1911 federal election.

Great Political Players

Sir Wilfred Laurier

Laurier was Canada’s seventh prime minister, taking office in 1896. His slogan was “the twentieth century belongs to Canada.”

Born in modern-day Quebec, Laurier entered politics in 1871 after earning a law degree.  He was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1874 and served until his death in February 1919.  In 1887, he became leader of the Liberal Party.

Educated both in French- and English-speaking Canada, Laurier advocated unity.  However, he was sometimes criticized by French-Canadians for being too English and by English-Canadians for being too French.

Some of Laurier’s accomplishments during his 15 year term:

  • Saskatchewan and Alberta entered into Confederation after policies that encouraged settlement of the west.
  • More railroads were built uniting both coasts.
  • Defended Canadian autonomy.
  • Signed legislation creating the Canadian Navy.

During World War I, Laurier opposed Canadian involvement which led to a temporary split in the Liberal Party during the 1917 federal election.

Sir Wilfred Laurier

Sir Wilfred Laurier

Robert Borden

Robert Borden led Canada through the contentious years of World War I and is the last prime minister born (in 1854) before the Dominion of Canada.  An attorney by trade, he entered politics in 1896 and quickly rose to Conservative Party leader, becoming prime minister in 1911.

Some of Borden’s accomplishments during his nearly nine-year term:

  • Committed the Canadian Expeditionary Force to Britain.
  • Implemented conscription in 1917.
  • Instituted the income tax.
  • Women gained the right to vote on a federal level.
  • Insisted Canada have a say during the Treaty of Versailles negotiations and a seat on the League of Nations.

He resigned in 1920 and died in 1937. After leaving office, Borden had a varied career, serving as the head of several universities, financial institutions and organizations, and writing several books.

Schools have been named after him, and he appeared on Canada’s $100 bill for a number of years.

Robert Borden

Robert Borden

Henri Bourassa

Henri Bourassa was outspoken and not afraid to fight for his beliefs. Born in Quebec in 1868, Bourassa entered politics in his early 20s and was elected to the House of Commons in 1896 where he found himself often at odds with fellow Québécois Wilfred Laurier whom he believed catered too much to Britain.

Britain requested Canada’s involvement in the Boer War, but many at home were opposed.  Laurier suggested Canadian men could serve voluntarily. Bourassa disliked this compromise so strongly he resigned from office.  He returned to public office in 1900 but remained an advocate for Canadian autonomy.  Despite being Catholic, he opposed the church having any involvement in government or policy.

Bourassa left public office once again, but remained a thorn in Laurier’s side for years. He continued to believe Laurier was too English and opposed most of the prime minister’s decisions, potentially contributing to Laurier’s defeat in 1911.

During World War I, Bourassa opposed both Canadian participation in the conflict and conscription.

He returned to federal office for a 10-year period starting in 1925, advocated for isolationism during the 1930s and against conscription during World War II.  Bourassa died in 1952.

Henri Bourassa

Henri Bourassa

Federal Election of 1911

The federal election of 1911, held Sept. 21, was contested over reciprocity, free trade with the United States. Canada tried for years to establish a reciprocity agreement, but the U.S. Congress voted it down. This time, the American government was eager to establish free trade while Canada had the stronger position.

The reciprocity bill proposed before the House of Commons applied mainly to natural products. Opponents said the bill harmed industry and would eventually lead to annexation to the U.S. Laurier was accused of being either too imperialist or not imperialist enough, depending on who was attacking him.

U.S. Speaker of the House, Champ Clark, who declared in a speech that the American flag would soon be flying throughout Canada.

The 1910 Naval Service Act, which would have built a Canadian navy that would be at Great Britain’s disposal in the event of war, and was intended to be a compromise between imperialists and nationalists, was a minor point of contention during the election.

The Conservatives won easily, gaining 131 seats to the Liberals’ 85. Laurier was replaced by Borden as prime minister.

Federal Election of 1917

Canada’s federal election of 1917 held Dec. 17, less than two weeks after the Halifax Explosion, was a vicious, heated contest.  This speaks volumes considering the 1911 election had enough rhetoric, half truths and mudslinging to make a 21st century politician feel right at home.

The election was fought primarily with one issue in mind: conscription. For this reason, it also is known as the Khaki Election.

The opponents were the Unionists (comprised of the Conservatives, some Liberals and a few Independents) and the Liberals. The Unionists were led by Prime Minister Robert Borden. The opposition was led by former Prime Minister Wilfred Laurier. Liberals who remained loyal to Laurier were referred to as Laurier Liberals. Those who aligned themselves with Borden were called Liberal-Unionists.

Military Service Act

By mid-1917, 130,000 Canadians had been killed or wounded in World War I. This staggering casualty rate, along with a sharp decrease in volunteers, meant it was becoming more difficult to replace the men who were lost.

Borden visited the troops overseas and became convinced the only solution was to enact conscription. This view countered an earlier promise to not make military service compulsory. It was, however, a view that was popular in the majority of the country.

The Military Service Act passed July 24, 1917.  The legislation was designed, in part, to deal with the shortage of military volunteers. When the war began, there were more volunteers than needed, but as time when on and the death toll grew, the number of volunteers dropped dramatically. French-speaking Canadians, having no loyalty to either the British or their ancestors’ homeland, volunteered in much-smaller numbers than English-speaking Canadians.

French-speaking Quebec had been against the war from the beginning, and there were riots throughout the province after the act’s proposal.  Québécois felt they were being singled out because they disapproved of the war.  The federal government felt Quebec wasn’t doing its fair share contributing to the war effort. Pro-conscription supporters in Quebec faced violence while farmers, who were against both parties, were accused of price gouging and profiteering.

Borden approached Laurier about forming a pro-conscription, coalition government, but Laurier refused, so Borden formed the Union party.

The act went into effect Jan. 1, 1918.  Men nationwide age 20-45 were required to register, but 93 percent sought exemptions.  French speakers disagreed with the act as did conscientious objectors, pacifists, union workers, immigrants, farmers and those with a grievance against the federal government. Supporters were mainly families of soldiers, older generations and those with close British ties.

Anti-war and anti-conscription feelings boiled over again on March 28, 1918, when riots broke out in Quebec City in response to police arresting draft dodgers. The situation escalated after a man was arrested for being unable to show the police his exemption papers. When his family brought the papers to the police station, he was released, but a crowd had already formed outside the building. The riot lasted four days. Buildings were looted, army records were thrown into the street, and the electricity was cut off. Troops were sent to the city to restore order. Rioters threw rocks at the troops who opened fire. Four men were killed, dozens were injured and property damage totaled $300,000.

In Vancouver, there was a general strike, after a man sought refuge with a group of conscientious objectors. He had tuberculous and was told he would not qualify for the draft but was called up anyway. A police officer killed him, supposedly in self defense.

In response to the riots and strikes, the federal government removed all exemptions, angering many Canadians.

The war ended before the Military Service Act could have its intended effect. By Armistice Day, 124,588 men had been conscripted with 24,132 serving overseas.

Politically, conscription gave Conservatives a black eye. The Liberal Party won the federal election of 1921 and would remain in power the majority of the time until 1957.

Sympathy Card for a Canadian Soldier

Sympathy Card for a Canadian Soldier

Wartime Elections Act

Another issue weighing on the public’s mind in 1917 was the Wartime Elections Act.

The act:

  • Allowed soldiers, who previously been excluded, to vote during wartime.
  • Enfranchised women serving in the medical corps.
  • Enfranchised the mothers, spouses and sisters of men serving overseas.
  • Disenfranchised immigrants from enemy nations who had arrived in Canada from 1902 onward unless the immigrant had a brother, son or grandson serving in active service.
  • Disenfranchised anyone exempt from conscription, primarily conscientious objectors who would be more likely to vote Liberal.

The act followed the nation’s conscription crisis that split the country between those of English decent, who favored conscription, and everyone else, who opposed it.  Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals joined forces to form the Unionist government.  Unionist election posters portrayed them as standing up for the nation whereas anti-conscription Liberals were slackers. If the Unionists could expand the electorate, they would ensure their victory.  The Liberals opposed the tactics the Conservatives/Unionists used to gain votes, but were powerless to stop the act’s passage in September 1917.

The elections act was a huge step forward for the suffrage movement as it granted the right to vote to all Canadian women, with the exception of First Nations peoples and minority groups, who were 21 years or older and fit into one of the categories above.

The act was repealed before Armistice. Women, however, were unaffected.  They had already permanently been given the right to vote.

a poppy

Enemy Alien Camps

Internment camps are not unique to that conflict World War Two.  There were camps during the Boer War, and the Canadian government established enemy alien camps during World War I.

Who was considered an enemy alien? The bulk were Ukrainians (referred to at the time as Bukovynians, Galicians and Ruthenians), but enemy aliens also included Germans, Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Poles, Romanians, Hungarians, Russians, Jews and Turks. These groups were thought to be sympathetic to the German and Austro-Hungarian war efforts.

In the prewar years, Ukrainians were recruited to farm the prairie provinces. When war broke out, they volunteered to fight for Canada, but if the government discovered their nationality, they were expelled from military service. The War Time Elections Act disenfranchised Ukrainians. Ukrainian language newspapers were made illegal in 1918. After the war, several Ukrainians were deported as suspected communists.

The War Measures Act forced members of “enemy” ethnicities to register, carry identification papers and regularly report to police or local authorities. Those who refused, tried to leave the country or were suspected of being dangerous were interned.

According to the act, “No person who is held for deportation under this Act or under any regulation made thereunder, or is under arrest or detention as an alien enemy, or upon suspicion that he is an alien enemy, or to prevent his departure from Canada, shall be released upon bail or otherwise discharged or tried, without the consent of the Minister of Justice.”

Twenty-four camps and receiving stations were opened nationwide in 1914. The majority of the inmates were men, but wives and children had no choice than to follow the head of household into imprisonment. In two camps, entire families were interned.

When a person entered the camps, the government confiscated all his possessions and property.  Prisoners also had their correspondence censored and weren’t allowed access to newspapers. Prisoners were required to do menial work such as cutting firewood. Some men were employed in construction or the railroad, earning 25 cents a day.

More than 80,000 people were registered.  Of those, 8,579 men were interned along with 237 women and children. More than 5,000 of the interned were Ukrainian.

Sometimes there were riots. More often, disease and despair. Insanity and suicide were common.

Conditions varied greatly from camp to camp and by social class. Those interned in first class were housed in comfortable conditions, but those categorized as Galicians, Ruthenians and Greek Catholics faced worse. Their camps were in areas that experienced harsh weather, and they were forced into labor.

Most internment camps closed in 1916 when a labor shortage forced the government to release the imprisoned. Those who were released continued to be tracked by the government.  A few camps remained open until the war ended with the final camp closing in 1920.

Today, Ukrainian-Canadians hope this tragic part of history is not forgotten.

“Canadians today should not be apologizing for something your grandfather did to my grandfather,” Lubomyr Luciuk, member of the Ukrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association told CTV.  “Acknowledge it, perhaps provide some kind of symbolic redress, but the most important thing really is memory.”

The Canadian government launched the Canadian First World War Internment Recognition Fund in 2008, officially recognizing those affected by internment and unveiled plaques in 2014 commemorating the camps.

A notice for Germans, Austrians, Hungarians and Turks to register

Halifax Explosion

Halifax played an important role during World War I as a command centre for the Royal Canadian Navy. Military and medical corps vessels as well as supply convoys embarked and disembarked from the harbor, which was protected by a garrison and anti-submarine nets.  Traffic through the harbor increased dramatically during the war, as did the city’s population. Many of the new citizenry were military men and transient employees. In addition, neutral nations’ ships were inspected in Halifax before given permission to move onto other North American ports.

On the morning of Dec. 6, 1917, a ship from neutral Norway, the Imo, was in Halifax for inspection. It was headed to New York City to pick up supplies destined for Belgium.  Another vessel, France’s Mont-Blanc, left New York and traveled to Halifax to join a convoy. It was carrying TNT and other explosives, and it was running several hours behind schedule.

Vessels were supposed to move in and out of the harbor port side (left) to port side. The Narrows, the exit to the harbor, necessitated this rule.

That morning, however, the Imo was traveling on the wrong side. Mont-Blanc blew its whistle at the Imo more than once, but the Imo refused to change its position.  The ships collided, and sparks from the collision started a fire in Mont-Blanc. The crew abandoned ship, and it began drifting toward Pier 6.

Meanwhile, the commotion attracted the attention of city residents who gathered at their windows or near the pier to watch.

At 9.04 a.m., Mont-Blanc exploded with such force it could be felt more than 100 miles away. Several acres of the city were instantly destroyed, while every building for a mile and a half was damaged.  The shock wave caused a tsunami. The explosion was the largest ever experienced at that time.

“The main damage, however, was done in the north end of the city, known as Richmond,” Canadian Press said, “which was opposite the point of the vessels’ collision.

“Here the damage is so extensive as to be totally beyond description.  Street after street is in ruins and flames swept over the district.

“In this section, many of the large buildings are smouldering heaps of ruins, and ordinary frame houses are mere piles of shattered, flattened ruins.”

Hundreds of people were blinded by broken glass, dozens permanently. Others were impaled or beheaded or vaporized. In the end, nearly 2,000 people died outright, and 9,000 were injured, some fatally.

First responders and hospital personnel were overwhelmed.  One morgue alone received 25 wagon loads of bodies.  The cities’ hospitals couldn’t handle all the wounded and many were housed in businesses and private homes.

The military went on high alert, unsure for a few hours if the explosion was the result of a German attack.

Fearing German attack, residents took to the streets in terror.

“By the littered roadsides as they passed, there could be seen the remains of what had once been human beings, now torn and mangled beyond realization of what had occurred,” Canadian Press said. “Here and there lay the cloth wrapped bodies of children, scarred and twisted by the force of the horrible explosion.”

By the day’s end, relief began arriving from surrounding communities and from Royal Navy and U.S. Navy ships. Relief trains sent supplies.

The day after the explosion, a blizzard hit. Despite the damage and the weather, the harbor reopened within days.

Thousands were homeless while thousands more had their homes damaged beyond repair.  Damages cost millions. Financial aid came from the Canadian and British governments as well as the Massachusetts state government.

the Halifax Explosion

 

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